Dr Heinemann, a Swedish physician, in 1972 did research on aggressive behaviour amongst school children, describing it as ‘mobbing’. His work marked the early beginning of research into what is currently referred to as ‘bullying’. Dan Olweus, a fellow-countryman of Heinemann’s, was the first person to systematically investigate the nature, frequency and long-term effects of bullying in Scandinavian schools. In 1983, his studies culminated in a national survey of the phenomenon in Norway (Rivers, Duncan & Besag 2007:3; Beaty & Alexeyev 2008:3). It was not until the early 1990s that research on bullying began in countries like the United Kingdom where the term ‘bullying’ was used (Rivers et al. 2007:4). All the research notwithstanding, the problem seems to escalate all over the world. Researchers should concentrate on practical solutions to the problem. One of the main sites of bullying is the school, thus inter alia the problem should be addressed in the school context.

Apathetic teachers who show little interest in their learners and treat them unfairly, thereby creating an atmosphere that is conducive to bullying, do not help to curb the problem (Barboza et al. 2009:107). On the other hand, ‘perceived social support from teachers [is] associated with lower probabilities of bullying.’ Therefore bullying can be curbed through support from teachers and by the way the class is structured and discipline maintained (Barboza et al. 2009:117).

The school should be a haven of safety for all learners where they can learn what they need to learn to become decent human beings. A school’s policy and code of conduct should have definite rules and consequences for any aggressive or violent behaviour.

The research done focused on the challenges faced by teachers in the school system to handle bullying behaviour adequately. The specific aims of the study were to research the role of school policy and ethos, as well as the teacher’s role, in dealing with bullying. Recommendations are made as to the role of teachers as well as the place of school ethos and policies concerning behavioural problems such as bullying.

The researchers adhered to a Christian worldview in the sense that they investigated solutions to the problem of bullying by emphasising the inculcation of Christian values such as tolerance, neighbourly love, care and respect in learners, so that learners would display these virtues even in a group context. In a theistic framework people typically adhere to values such as honesty, impartiality, courage, self-control, responsibility, concern for others, mercy and justice (Lewis 1946). In Christianity the moral virtues are grounded in the character of Christ and embodied in Biblical ethics. Worldview should become a way of living:

Christians who embrace the [Christian] worldview do so because of their belief that worldview is such a fundamental part of human nature that every person has one whether he [or she] realizes it or not. (All about worldview n.d.)

In the spirit of the research Christianity is about treating others in a humane way, because ‘Jesus came into this world, not as an imposter of humanity, nor as a dim reflection of humanity ... but as a living, fully functional and holistic representative of humanity (Heb 4:15)’ (Iselin & Meteyard 2010:39). It is to be hoped that when they teach Christian values, teachers will also educate their class as a group in accepting each other and caring for each other, which is also in line with the positive application of the social identity theoretical framework.

The behaviour of bullies does show a tendency to adhere to group norms that are unacceptable and not seen as normative within the Christian worldview. Stakeholders such as parents and teachers should guide learners to choose behaviour where they treat their fellow human beings humanely and with respect. Belonging to a group as indicated by the social identity theoretical framework is very important for most young people and that should be kept in mind when dealing with bullying.

In general, it is thought that bullies are bullied at home or elsewhere, from which they take the lesson that by domineering others one gets what one wants. A family member may get away with bullying another family member, thus teaching the victim to use bullying tactics to gain control over weaker peers (Rivers et al. 2007:19−20). Parents of bullies often use power-assertive techniques like physical punishment to manage others (authoritarian parenting style). They may lack warmth and are often not involved in their children’s lives. Bullies may imitate their parents’ aggressive behaviour (Smokowski & Kopasz 2005:103; Barboza et al. 2009:104). Bullies often come from a home background where there is admiration for dominance over others. Some parents for instance may encourage negative social behaviour by encouraging achievement at all costs. High achievement in sports or the academic or social spheres, which has become very important in schools, may become the only goal their children strive for, not caring about others on their way up (Rivers et al. 2007:19). Teachers and parents often turn a blind eye to what actually happens to children on their way up the achievement ladder. Such individuals often lack empathy, are heedless of other people’s interests or well-being and become autocratic leaders. All of the above negate the Christian values of patience, kindness and trust. Adherence to such values would mean that the child would not be rude, self-seeking, easily angered or keep a record of wrongs (1 Cor 13:4−6, New International Version). The refusal to adhere to values such as these can have dire consequences for the bully and the victim.

Problems experienced by victims of bullying may be emotional or social, and include loneliness, anxiety, depression, low self-esteem and even thoughts of suicide. Victims often experience high levels of post-traumatic stress and this can lead to mental health problems (Smokowski & Kopaz 2005:104; Rivers et al. 2007:27−28; Crothers & Kolbert 2008:133; Prinsloo 2008:30; Beaty & Alexeyev 2008:8). Physical consequences of bullying can be headaches, enuresis, loss of appetite and stomach problems; and educational problems can include absenteeism, withdrawal from social activities at school, loss of concentration and fear of asking questions (De Wet 2005:45). More long-term consequences that may affect victims’ lives as adults include poor self-esteem, eating disorders, relationship problems and a lack of conflict resolution skills.

Bullies, on the other hand, learn to use violence and aggression to solve problems. They learn to gain emotional, social and often monetary benefits from their aggressive behaviour. They gain or maintain dominance in an abusive way and often lack a sense of empathy. Poor development of empathy can lead to depersonalisation and alienation from healthy human relationships. The use of social aggression may lead to abuse or a career in crime in adulthood (Rivers et al. 2007:29; Smokowski & Kopasz 2005:102; De Wet 2005:45). Many bullies experience mental health problems. They present conditions such as attention deficit or oppositional-conduct disorder. They often turn to substance abuse and in adulthood present antisocial behaviour (Smokowski & Kopasz 2005:103; Prinsloo 2008:33; Crothers & Kolbert 2008:133). Bullies demonstrate poor psycho-social skills and have difficulties with social adjustment and cooperation with peers, because their egocentrism and related positive expectations of antisocial behaviour gets in the way of any movement towards social acceptability. Consequently their social skills are poorly developed, and they produce aggressive and hostile alternatives to situational stimuli and demands (Prinsloo 2008:33−34).

It is important to introduce effective measures against bullying in schools, preferably by involving the whole school in dealing with this destructive problem.

Unfortunately, it often happens that rules in schools as indicated in the code of conduct are for the learners only, because teachers become bad role models when under pressure and learners are told: ‘Do as I say, not as I do’ (Rivers et al. 2007:46). The competitiveness in the education system causes stress for teachers and learners with the result that principles such as respect, tolerance and care are not adhered to by everybody in the school. There is competition amongst learners for academic, sports and cultural achievements, but also competition amongst teachers for recognition as ‘good’ teachers. Because of a constant fear of failure, teachers and learners ‘lose their moral compass and find that they are working to hidden agendas that require coercion rather than persuasion, and manipulation rather than honesty’ (Rivers et al. 2007:46).

A school’s failure to deal with bullying allows a hostile environment to interfere with learning, whereas dealing with the issue improves school climate, maximises achievements and in general creates a happy community (Beaty & Alexeyev 2008:2). Learners should feel safe in the school. A culture of respect and recognition of human dignity is important. A zero-tolerance policy with swift and serious consequences for engaging in bullying should be part of the school code of conduct. There should be no payoffs for bullying (Smokowski & Kopasz 2005:108).

Most anti-bullying programmes prompt school staff to get involved in learner problems and to create a warm atmosphere with firm boundaries concerning unacceptable behaviour, consistently applying non-hostile and non-violent consequences for violation of rules. Adults should be authority figures as well as role models (Smokowski & Kopasz 2005:106). Bullies should be aware of school policies and the code of conduct and should be held accountable when they fail to adhere to the rules. Behavioural contracts and social skills training can also be helpful (Smokowski & Kopasz 2005:106−107).

Stewart and Knott (1999) add the following recommendations for inclusion in school policy:

• practical strategies to address behavioural problems
• acceptance by staff that some level of confrontation between students is healthy and normal
• programmes and policies that are based on core values (in this framework Christian values) rather than rewards and punishments
• expected student behaviour being modelled and taught by all stakeholders in the school. (p. 113)

If all teachers in a school could be equipped to deal with issues such as bullying, schools would become happy, safe places where learners feel free to explore and learn. Unfortunately not all teachers know how to deal with such contentious issues, nor do they adhere to the values they want to instil in learners.

Learners often complain that teachers contribute to bullying because they tolerate it. By not speaking up or intervening in bullying incidents they create the impression that they are unaware of or impervious to such incidents or, worse, that they tacitly approve of such undesirable behaviour (Crothers & Kolbert 2008:133; Beaty & Alexeyev 2008:7).

Teachers’ attitudes towards learners, parents and colleagues have an important influence on learners’ behaviour. Aggressive disciplinary measures can create a negative school environment and teachers can then become role models of the behaviour they are trying to prevent (Orpinas & Horne 2006:48; Rivers et al. 2007:41). Perfect conditions for bullying are provided where social relationships are contaminated by fear and injustice (Rivers et al. 2007:41). This behaviour contravenes Christian values such as neighbourly love and care. It also shows the negative influence of group association.

The negative influence of teachers has been highlighted above. Such problems often occur because teachers are not equipped to deal with problems such as bullying. The researchers decided to investigate the positive role teachers can play in curbing the problem of bullying and find out whether they are equipped to deal with the issue.

Data were gathered by using questionnaires with qualitative and quantitative sections to elicit teachers’ views on bullying and to find out whether they were equipped to deal with such behaviour. A printed questionnaire with closed and open-ended questions was personally delivered to schools with a discussion with the principal regarding the rationale behind the research. Leedy and Ormrod (2001:197) state that the anonymity of responses to a questionnaire encourages participants to be more truthful than they would be in a personal interview. The researchers used the qualitative data from the questionnaire for the main emphasis of this research, namely the question whether teachers are equipped to deal with bullying, and the quantitative data to deduce teachers’ consciousness regarding the issue.

The questionnaire consisted of three sections of which the first covered biographical detail and the second information about bullying at the specific schools. The concluding section comprised open questions about teachers’ training for dealing with bullying problems, and about strategies they would use to limit the occurrence of such incidents. It was important to see whether teachers made positive use of the children’s dependence on group association and also whether they kept a humane, caring ethos in mind when dealing with bullying.

In the second section the researchers wanted general information about bullying in the specific schools to see whether teachers were aware of the severity of the problem. Eighty-seven per cent (87%) of the teachers agreed that they were aware of bullying incidents in their schools. According to the teachers, verbal bullying had a high-frequency occurrence, but physical bullying was also rife, and sexual bullying occurred in some instances. This testimony reflected teachers’ awareness of bullying incidents and also of the different kinds of bullying. According to the teachers, male learners were more often involved in bullying (72%), whilst females accounted for only 28% of cases overall. This testimony may be based on their perception, because verbal and physical bullying are the more visible kinds of bulling and usually occur amongst boys (Olweus, Limber & Mihalic in Sciarra 2003:352; Smokowski & Kopasz 2005:102; Barboza et al. 2009:102; Prinsloo 2008:27; Beaty & Alexeyev 2008:1). Sixty-two per cent of teachers thought that bullying had increased recently. They reported the highest incidence in Grade 4 to Grade 6 (40%), followed by Grade 7 (36%) in primary schools and in Grade 8 to Grade 9 (40%) in secondary schools. Bullying mostly occurred during break (75%), but also after school, before school and during classes. Eighty per cent (80%) of bullying incidents occurred on school grounds, but it also occurred outside the school grounds and in classrooms and toilets. These findings concur with international research which has shown that schools often provide an environment that is conducive to bullying, because of inadequate supervision, especially during break times and after formal school hours (Sciarra 2003:355; Smokowski & Kopasz 2005:102). Problems often occur in hallways, bathrooms and on playgrounds (Orpinas & Horne 2006:48; Smokowski & Kopasz 2005:102). These findings are also in line with the research of Beaty and Alexeyev (2008:8) as well as that of Rivers et al. (2007:31). The behaviour of bullies as discussed above shows a tendency to adhere to group norms that are unacceptable and not seen as normative within the Christian worldview.

In the last section teachers were asked whether they felt equipped to work with bullies and victims, and 34% of the teachers answered ‘yes’ and 66% answered ‘no’. They were also asked if they had received training to help them cope with bullying incidents, whether as part of their formal teacher training, or as part of in-service training at their school. Thirty per cent (30%) indicated that they had, and 70% that they had not received such training. In research done by Crothers and Kolbert (2008:132) teachers who had been exposed to behaviour management problems in class indicated that they had not received training that equipped them to manage such problems adequately.

Teachers were asked in open questions to discuss intervention strategies that they used to handle bullying incidents. Some teachers really thought about the issue to get to the root of the problem, for instance, ‘investigate why learners bully if it is another means of frustration outlet and should we look for other signs’. One teacher indicated that ’people need to understand the motivation that drives bullying behaviour.’ Most participants felt that teachers have to understand why learners become bullies if they are to address the problem successfully.

Many teachers indicated that they talked to learners about bullying and its effects on bullies and victims, for example, ‘prevention by discussing bullying with learners, and indicating how to handle it’ and by ‘letting learners know pre-emptively that bullying is unacceptable’.

They also tried to help by using techniques that often come intuitively to teachers as part of the helping professions, for example, ‘help the learner being bullied by discussing how to stand up for oneself and move out of the situation. Some teachers dramatise incidents where they (victims) must stand up to bullies’. Bullies were confronted and an anger management course was suggested. Victims and bullies were ‘referred to the school psychologist’ or were referred for counselling (e.g. encourage bullied learners to speak to someone). Sometimes it was better to move bullies to other classes. Most teachers believed in ‘equipping learners with coping skills to handle bullies.’ Many participants indicated that ‘early identification and treatment is critical.’

Teachers believed in ‘teaching children that they must know their rights’ and some specify that ‘no bullies will be allowed in school.’ But most importantly they believed that principles for non-violent behaviour and consequences of transgressions should be made part of school policies and codes of conduct: ‘Teach learners to respect each other.’

Teachers also believed in ‘reporting incidents to relevant authorities (for instance: Take bullies to head of department) and follow up on action taken and eventual outcomes.’ It was therefore important to take action so that bullies knew that their deeds would have consequences for them. It is important to ‘contact parents − meet with parents (e.g. bullies should be dealt with immediately − parents should be involved)’. If it was a serious case that could not be solved at school, teachers ‘may ask parents to report cases to the SAPD.’ ‘Some consequences contained in the code of conduct may be to make use of detention’; if behaviour did not improve ‘disciplinary hearings should take place.’

Teachers seemed mostly to handle bullying with intuitive knowledge, but often lacked the skills to teach learners how to behave. Teachers needed assistance and training to be equipped to handle this contentious issue. According to a female respondent with more than 20 years’ teaching experience: ‘not all teachers are equipped to handle bullies − especially young teachers – older teachers can handle these situations out of experience’.

Many of the comments from teachers or participants correspond with the recommendations offered in the next section.

Every teacher should tackle bullying through the curriculum as a whole (hidden and overt curriculum). Teachers should deal with the issue of bullying by using a variety of teaching or learning styles such as discussions, debates and dramatisation so that learners can begin to examine, investigate and understand their own attitude towards and behaviour regarding bullying (Suckling & Temple 2002:15; Lee 2004:62−3). Class rules could follow from these enactments, as well as a better understanding by learners, acceptance of the values instilled in them and therefore a commitment to anti-bullying behaviour (Salmivalli, Kaukiainen & Voeten 2005:468). The process invites learners to develop, practise and implement their own solutions to the problem and take responsibility for finding solutions. The teacher can use content, as well as extracurricular programmes, to develop and instil norms such as tolerance, responsibility and acceptable behaviour. The hidden curriculum also plays a major role. Teachers’ attitudes, values, beliefs and handling of relationships with learners, parents and colleagues influence learners in their classrooms (Suckling & Temple 2002:13).

It is important that teachers see classroom management as an aspect of ‘instruction, curriculum, and school climate rather than one of control’ (Crothers & Kolbert 2008:134). Classroom management should be an integrated combination of instruction, curriculum and school climate, and not focus solely on control and authoritarian discipline. Learners should be actively engaged in the whole classroom process – they should be taught to think critically about issues pertaining to them as learners, but also to their future as adults. Rules are important, but learners should have a say in the setting of rules in a democratic environment. Cooperative learning activities could improve attitudes and relationships between learners (Crothers & Kolbert 2008:134).

Bullying behaviour should not be ignored when seen on the playground or in the classroom, it should be stopped immediately (Rivers et al. 2007:31). It is very important that a timetable exists for playground supervision, because bullying often happens where adult supervision is inadequate (De Wet 2005:47).

Training is necessary to help teachers make decisions on when to intervene in incidents between learners. They need training to decide what actions to take when they observe conflict. ‘Training courses should also provide [teachers] or prospective educators with basic counselling skills to equip them to deal with both the practical and emotional aspects of victimization’ (De Wet 2005:53).

With some training teachers should be able to teach learners social skills such as listening, problem solving, conflict resolution and communication skills. Learners should get educated on the value of friendship, respect and tolerance. Learners should learn to identify their own strengths in order to enhance their self-esteem so that they project confident body language in conflict situations. Learners should adopt appropriate verbal strategies when dealing with bullying. They should learn to replace negative statements about themselves with positive and realistic statements. Skills for relaxation and assertiveness skills are also important. Teachers should conduct constructive conversations with the bully and the victim, as well as with the parents (Crothers & Kolbert 2008:135; Beaty & Alexeyev 2008:8; De Wet 2005:47).

The school is the embodiment of socialisation in a safe community; therefore the atmosphere should be such that learners can develop into well-adjusted social beings with a humane outlook on the world around them. Schools need more than a code of conduct, they need an ethos of care, respect and humanness so that all learners can feel safe and secure. Only then can they learn and develop as human beings.

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